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1. Maye gurbin hydrogen akan hydroxyl na carbon anomeric da kowane zarra yana haifar da glycoside. Ana kiran haɗin gwiwa azaman haɗin glycosidic. Yawancin carbohydrates masu ɗauke da raka'a masu sukari da yawa suna da alaƙar glycosidic. Sucrose (glucose + fructose) yana da haɗin glycosidic wanda ya haɗu da sukari guda biyu, kamar yadda lactose (glucose + galactose). Carbohydrates tare da sukari guda biyu ana kiran su disaccharides. Sugars waɗanda ba glycosides ba na iya canzawa da sauri daga alpha zuwa beta, amma glycosides suna kulle a cikin tsarin da suke ciki lokacin da aka maye gurbin hydrogen daga rukunin hydroxyl na carbon anomeric.

2. Yayin da muka tsufa, muna yawan yin ƙasa da enzyme da aka sani da lactase. Lactase yana rushe lactose zuwa glucose da galactose. Idan lactase ba ya nan ko kuma ya yi karanci, lactose yana sanya shi cikin hanji inda kwayoyin cuta ke karya shi kuma su samar da iskar gas mai yawa kuma suna haifar da ciwo mai yawa.

3. Polymers na sukari suna haifar da polysaccharides. Amylose shine polysaccharide na tsire-tsire wanda ya ƙunshi raka'o'in glucose wanda ke da alaƙa kawai a cikin haɗin gwiwar alpha-1,4. Glycogen shine polysaccharride na dabbobi da ke ajiya wanda ya ƙunshi raka'a glucose da ke da alaƙa a cikin haɗin alpha1,4 kuma kowane saura goma ko makamancin haka, akwai reshe 1,6 zuwa sabon sarkar glucose. Don haka Glycogen yana da rassa sosai. Amylopectin shine polysaccharide na shuke-shuke wanda kuma shine glucose polymer tare da alpha 1,4 linkages da alpha 1,6 rassan, amma rassan ba su da yawa kamar glycogen. Sitaci shine cakuda amylose da amylopectin.

4. Cellulose shine polymer na glucose, amma maimakon samun raka'a da aka haɗa alpha 1,4, cellulose yana da raka'a da aka haɗa beta 1,4. Yawancin dabbobi ba za su iya narkar da cellulose ba don haka ba za su iya samun kuzari daga gare ta ba. Tun da cellulose wani bangare ne na ganuwar tantanin halitta, yawancin makamashi ya ɓace a sakamakon.

5. Dabbobin da ba a sani ba, irin su saniya, suna da kwayoyin cuta a cikin jikokinsu (ciki na musamman) wadanda ke dauke da sinadarin cellulase. Cellulase zai iya karya haɗin beta 1,4 tsakanin glucoses a cikin cellulose kuma ya ba da makamashi ga shanu.

6. Sugars wani lokaci suna da rukunonin amino haɗe da su.

7. Proteoglycans sune carbohydrates da aka haɗe zuwa sunadaran. Ana canza sukarin da ke cikin carbohydrates ta hanyar sinadarai don samun caji mara kyau kuma cajin ngeative yana korar juna kuma yana ba da mafita mai ɗauke da su. Ana samun su a cikin hyaluronan (wani fili na ruwan synovial na gidajenmu) da kuma cikin gamsai.

8. Glycoproteins sunadaran sunadaran da ke da ƙananan oligosaccharides a haɗe su. Wasu daga cikinsu suna ba da shaidar salula don nau'in jini.

Haskaka Makamashi

1. The free makamashi na wani dauki (Delta G) shi ne makamashin da yake samuwa ga (ko ake bukata don) yin abubuwa a cikin sel (catalyzing halayen, yin aiki, da dai sauransu). Ta hanyar nazarin canjin makamashi na kyauta wanda ke faruwa a cikin amsawa, wanda zai iya ƙayyade idan amsawar ta dace (ci gaba) ko rashin dacewa (koma baya). Abubuwan da suka dace suna da ƙimar Delta G waɗanda ba su da kyau (wanda kuma ake kira halayen exergonic). Halayen da ba su da kyau suna da ƙimar Delta G waɗanda ke da inganci (wanda kuma ake kira halayen endergonic). Lokacin da Delta G don amsa ya zama sifili, ana cewa martani yana kan daidaito. Ma'auni baya nufin ma'auni daidai.

2. Don amsawa A = B (lura cewa duk halayen suna canzawa a ka'idar. Ina amfani da alamar = don nuna alamar da za a iya juyawa), idan Delta G ba shi da kyau, an fi son mayar da martani (A - B). Idan Delta G yana da inganci, an fi son mayar da martani (B -A). Idan Delta G ba shi da sifili, babu wani canji a cikin A da B, kamar yadda tsarin yake cikin daidaito.

3. Ana iya ƙididdige Delta G don amsawar A=B daga

Delta G = DeltaGzero + RTln ([B]/[A]). Zan sauƙaƙa wannan don ajinmu zuwa fom mai zuwa:

Delta G = DeltaGzero + RTln ([Samfur] / [Masu amsawa])

4. Lura cewa idan [Kayayyakin] sun fi [Reactants], ln kalmar yana da KYAU. Idan [Kayayyakin] sun kasance ƙasa da [Reactants], ln kalmar ba ta da kyau. Idan [Kayayyakin] = [Reactants], kalmar ln shine ZERO.

5. DeltaGzero shine akai-akai wanda ke da takamaiman ƙima ga kowane amsa.